The domestic chicken, or Gallus domesticus
as the Romans called it, has lived with humans for centuries. It
is probably the descendent of a wild asian bird, and historians
have found references to its domestic descendant in the art and
literature of India, China, and southeast Asia as early as 3000
BC. Egyptians were managing large flocks of chickens by the
Second Dynasty (2890 to 2680 BC), but for some reason did not
record much about their accomplishments in the breeding and
keeping of chickens. Greek writings, however, describe how
Egyptians designed and built clay incubators with the capacity to
incubate and brood 10,000 to 15,000 chicks at a time. Incubators
with greater capacity have only existed in this country and
western Europe for about 80 years.
It was sometime before the sixth century BC
that the Egyptians and the Persians introduced the wonders of
domesticated chickens to the Greeks. The Persians shared their
talent for breeding Malayan and Indian jungle fowl, which were
used primarily for cock fighting, while the Egyptians taught the
Greeks how to successfully develop and maintain breeds for the
production of eggs and meat. For the next 200 years, chickens
became an indispensable element in Greek life. At first they were
used primarily in religious ceremonies, folk medicine, and the
popular sport of cock fighting. But by the third century BC,
breeding chickens for egg laying and meat production had become a
priority in Greek civilization.
The Greeks passed their knowledge of the
chicken on to the Romans. It was in Rome that the chicken truly
reached its apotheosis. There, it became a sacred bird, often
used as the central figure of various methods of divination,
apothecary, and as a serious subject for philosophical inquiry.
In Rome, fighting cocks were trained like gladiators. They were
fed garlic before they fought in the belief that it would
increase their courage and ferocity. The Romans also believed
that garlic had the same effect on men. The writings of Roman
naturalists and philosophers elevated the chicken to an exalted
position in urban civilization. They skillfully molded it into a
genuine object of scientific scrutiny and philosophical inquiry.
No longer would the chicken be a taken-for-granted resident of
the barnyard or cockpit.
The chicken has always meant much more to
people than a cheap meal. The cock, or rooster as we now call it,
has long been respected, especially for its ferocity as a
fighter. In ancient Syria, Borneo, and Sumatra the fighting cock
was worshiped as a god—an exalted status that usually saved
it from becoming Sunday dinner. There was even a time in ancient
Greece when cock fighting was considered a national sport. The
Romans viewed the cock as a noble gladiator, and the cock fight
was a solemn ceremony that reinforced their belief that men
should be brave—imitators of the cock.
Cockfighting came to its greatest secular
popularity and refinement in late medieval England. The Church
made vigorous efforts to repress it but only succeeded in driving
it underground. As a compromise with the people, the Church did
finally sanction organized cockfighting events on special days,
such as Shrove Tuesday. One very popular Shrove Tuesday event was
held in English grammar schools. The schoolmasters were paid a
“cock fee” for allowing the children to bring their
cocks to school, and all learning was suspended for the day as
the desks and chairs were pushed aside to make room for the
daylong contests. The student who owned the champion cock was
excused from corporal punishment during Lent, along with one
other student of his choice. At the end of the day the school
master was presented with all of the cocks that were killed.
During the reign of Henry VIII, cock
fighting flourished in England, exceeding even horse racing in
popularity. James I, Charles II, And William the III were among
other monarchs who were avid cockers. By the end of the 18th
century, however, reformist doctrine started to take hold with
the English majority. By 1835, cock fighting was reduced to the
rank of a cruel and capricious sport and was, once again, driven
underground.
In spite of being prohibited in England,
after 1835 cockfighting found a new home in America. Ships that
carried English settlers to America also carried chickens and
fighting cocks. Cock fighting was frowned upon by the Puritans
but it still flourished from New York to Georgia. Before and
after the Revolution, New York was the center of cockfighting in
the East. Here the sport was dominated by freed slaves and Irish
immigrants.
Before long, the sport spread west and
became most popular in areas settled by Southerners and the
Irish. As in England, reformers moved quickly to force
legislation to outlaw cock fighting but it soon became obvious
that there was little sentiment for this type legislation on the
national level, so the individual states were left to pass there
own laws. But even on the state level, very little anticocking
legislation was passed until early in the 20th century. While
visiting friends in Florida, in 1971, I was surprised to find
that cockfighting was still legal in that state.
Outlawing cockfighting in this country has
had the same effect as Prohibition. As you read these words
somewhere in this country, loyal members of a tight fraternity of
cockers is gathering around a pit, anxiously waiting to place
their bets on the outcome of the main event.
Cultural influence
The chicken has influenced our languages
and cultures. From ancient times to the present, if two people
look or act the same, they are said to be “hatched from the
same egg.” The ancient Greeks compared poor writing to
“chicken scratches.” Using the word chicken to describe
a coward has been popular since Shakespeare's time and the
proverb, “I would not have him count his chickens so soon
before they hatched,” was found in a collection of proverbs
published in 1579.Superstitions surrounding chickens are also
alive and well in both urban and rural areas. One superstition
declares that there will be sickness in the house if a hen crows.
Another claims that a farmer's chickens will be like the
first person who comes to his house on New Year's morning—a
stout and prosperous person meant plump chickens while a poor
meager person meant scrawny chickens.
Make a wish
Two people tugging on the magic clavicle,
or wish bone, until it breaks, dates back almost 2,500 years to
the ancient Etruscans. Chickens were kept in Etruscan temples to
answer questions by pecking at corn kernels in a circle marked
with letters of the alphabet. When the bird was through eating, a
priest would enter the circle and interpret the results. When one
of these sacred birds died, its collar bone was dried and
believers were allowed to stroke it and make a wish. When the
custom was passed to the Romans, people started tugging on the
bone until it broke. The wish of the person holding the half
containing the “head” would be granted. I've heard
it suggested that the phrase, “to get a lucky break,”
came from this ancient custom.
Before trained physicians came on the world
scene in 18th century, chickens provided a living drug store of
remedies for everyone—rich and poor. In the practice of folk
medicine, people were inclined to reach for a chicken to cure
almost any malady of the body or the spirit. In ancient Greece,
as well as other parts of the world, fever, arthritis, colic,
dysentery, epilepsy, headache, constipation, and cough were all
treated with various parts of the chicken. The remedies are
endless and most are far too complicated and absurd to mention
here. But some made sense and are still used today: a bowl of
homemade chicken soup has always been, and probably always will
be, prescribed as a comfort and cure for many maladies, real and
imagined.
Mass production
The modern world, with its fast-paced
industrial technology, has nearly turned the chicken into a
man-made living machine, existing solely to lay eggs and be
eaten.
The end of the chicken's role as a
sideline element of farm economy started to change near the end
of the 19th century. Industrial technology was advancing at a
rapid rate and the chicken, which was being increasingly marketed
as a commodity, became the object of technological innovation.
Today commercial poultry farms in the United States produce over
six billion broiler chickens annually. The larger farms operate
10 or more chicken houses, each of which can hold more than
40,000 chicks. This fast paced production has made chicken
inexpensive and easy to buy. As a result, the consumption of
chicken in America has increased nearly 300 percent since 1900.
Some complain that new hybridized chickens have little or no
taste. I have noticed that the leg and thigh meat is not as dark
as it was just a few years ago and not as strong tasting. But in
some ways this is a plus because the mild flavored flesh can be
seasoned and prepared just like veal, with excellent results at a
fraction of the cost.
In the recipe section of this column I have
selected recipes that demonstrate that chicken is still a
flavorful protein and does not need a lot of seasoning to taste
good. When flavor enhancers are used, they are meant to
complement the subtle flavor of the chicken, not mask it.
The first two recipes are old time
standards which, when prepared properly, will show you that
chicken has not lost all of its flavor. The last recipe will
demonstrate how chicken can support flavor enhancing, without
losing its own subtle taste.
Basic chicken broth
Fresh chicken broth is one of the
foundation ingredients in my kitchen. Without it, many of my
favorite foods would be impossible to prepare. Most of the soups,
stews, and casseroles I prepare are made using fresh chicken
broth as a basic ingredient. Its mild flavor and delicate
aftertaste also make it a perfect enhancer for adding flavor and
body to vegetable, pasta, and bean dishes.
I seldom let my supply of fresh chicken
broth run out, but it does happen. There is nothing difficult
about making fresh chicken broth. Broths are simply the end
product of slowly simmering meat, fresh vegetables, and herbs in
lightly salted water. It takes about three hours to properly
prepare a good chicken broth. But once you get the broth started,
it requires little attention.
I rarely go through the bother of buying
whole chickens and butchering them at home. When my supply of
fresh broth runs low, I simply process a whole bird to replenish
it. I don't live in an area where dressed stewing hens are
easy to find, so I use a five to six-pound roasting chicken, or
capon instead. Both of these will produce five to six quarts of
excellent chicken broth, and the leftover meat is used in a
variety of recipes.
Once a month my mother would spend an
entire Sunday afternoon making a two-gallon batch of fresh
chicken broth to share with our elderly neighbors. She would then
make something special for dinner using her fresh-made broth. I
suggest we do the same, that is, set aside two quarts of this
broth, when completed which we will use to prepare one of my mom's
best Sunday chicken specials.
Cool the rest of the broth in the
refrigerator overnight. The fat will congeal on the surface of
the broth, making it easy to remove. You can then pack the clear,
fat-free broth in suitable size containers and store them in the
freezer for future use.
Ingredients:
1 5 to 6 pound stewing hen or roasting
chicken
6 quarts cold water
2 medium onions, peeled and cut into quarters
1 celery rib with leaves attached
1 whole carrot
2 bay leaves
8 whole black peppercorns
3 whole cloves
1 piece peeled fresh ginger about one inch long, chopped
1 tsp. Kosher salt
Method:
1. Place the chicken and the water in a 10-
or 12-quart stockpot. Place the pot on the stove over a low flame
and let the water come to a gentle boil. A froth will appear on
top. This will take from 45 minutes to one hour. Carefully skim
off the froth as it rises to the surface. Do not, for any reason,
stir the pot after the froth first begins to appear.
2. The froth will continue to form on top of the broth for about
an hour. When it stops foaming, let the broth simmer for about 30
minutes, then add the onions, celery, and carrot.
3. Let the pot return to a simmer while carefully skimming off
any more sediment that rises to the surface. Add the bay leaves,
peppercorns, whole clove, ginger, and salt.
4. Reduce the heat to a point where the broth is barely
simmering. Continue to simmer, uncovered, for 1½ hours. If you
are using a roasting chicken or capon, remove it at this point
and let the stock simmer for another hour. If you are using an
old stewing hen (fowl), leave it in the pot until the end.
5. Turn off the heat, remove the stewing hen, if necessary, and
let the broth settle and cool.
6. Strain the broth into another pot through several layers of
cheese cloth and place the pot in the refrigerator. This is the
fastest and safest way to cool a perishable hot food like chicken
broth. You can safely let the stock cool, unrefrigerated, for up
to 90 minutes before placing it in the refrigerator. If you live
in a northern climate, during the winter you can take a pot of
hot stock on a cake rack and place it on your back porch for
super-fast cooling.
Chicken and dumpling stew
On her recipe card my mom called this dish
“North Carolina chicken and dumpling stew.” Since I
have never come across a southern recipe that even remotely
resembles this dish, I have removed North Carolina from the
title. Regardless of its origin, this recipe truly demonstrates
how the subtle richness of a homemade chicken broth, combined
with the moist tender flesh of a properly cooked chicken, can
elevate a simple dish to an epicure's delight.
Raised Dumplings:
Dumplings hold a special place in almost
every cuisine. Italian cooks make small dumplings, called
gnocchi, with a variety of starches including common all purpose
flour, potatoes, semolina flour, pumpkin, and cornmeal. They even
make a dumpling using ricotta cheese. In Germany they make
serviettenknödel, a tiny light dumpling that usually accompanies
pot roasts. In western Austria they make kasnocken, a dumpling
made with dry bread and flavored with aged local cheeses.
Dumplings are also a large part of Chinese cuisine. On restaurant
menus they are usually listed as dim sum and are served in a wide
variety of steamed, boiled, and fried versions. Some special
Chinese restaurants open just for lunch serve only dumplings and
tea.
The dumplings used in this recipe develop a
light, fluffy, texture when cooked, but they hold together when
mixed with the other ingredients in the stew. If you are new to
homemade dumpling recipes, I suggest you make the dumpling dough
before you start the stew. It will hold well in the refrigerator
until it is time for you to use it. Do not hold the dough for
more than an hour. If you do, the baking powder will dissipate
and the gluten in the flour will over-develop. This will turn
your dumplings into slippery, tough hunks of boiled dough. If you
are a fresh-dumpling pro, pick your own time during the
preparation to make your dumplings. The closer to when you are
going to incorporate them, the better.
Dumpling Ingredients:
1 cup all purpose flour
1½ tsp. double acting baking powder
¼ tsp. baking soda
½ tsp. Kosher salt
2 Tbsp. unsalted butter
2 medium eggs, slightly beaten
1/8 cup buttermilk or low fat plain yogurt
Method:
1. Combine the flour, baking powder, baking
soda, and salt in a bowl and stir until well blended.
2. Cut in the unsalted butter with a pastry blender until the
flour resembles course corn meal.
3. Combine the slightly beaten eggs with the buttermilk or
yogurt. Using a wooden spoon, quickly stir the egg mixture into
the flour, using as few strokes as possible.
4. Lightly flour your work surface, and turn the dough onto it.
Sprinkle a little flour on the dough to prevent it from sticking
to your fingers.
5. Gently flatten the dough with the heel of your hand,
sprinkling a little more flour if it sticks to your hands or the
work surface. Fold the dough in half, and gently press it flat
again. Repeat this gentle flattening and folding process until
the dough is just smooth. Do not try to knead the dough as you
would bread dough. Overworked dumpling dough becomes tough and
will not rise properly.
6. Roll the dough on a well-floured board to a ¼-inch thickness.
Cut into strips that are one-inch wide and two-inches long. Set
dumplings aside until needed.
Stew Ingredients:
1 cooked, skinned, and boned 5 to 6 pound
chicken. (cut the meat cut into ½-inch pieces)
8 cups fresh chicken broth
1 bay leaf (dried or fresh)
2 ribs celery, diced medium
½ tsp. dried sage leaves
½ tsp. dried thyme leaves
3 Tbsp. margarine or butter
1 large or 2 medium yellow onions, diced medium
1 pound fresh carrots, peeled and cut into medium size chunks
¼ cup cold chicken broth
4 Tbsp all purpose flour
Kosher salt to taste
fresh ground black pepper to taste
1 recipe of dumpling dough (see previous recipe)
1 cup frozen peas, thawed
Method:
1. Skin and bone the chicken, then dice the
meat. Hold the diced chicken in the refrigerator until you are
ready to use it.
2. Put the eight cups of fresh broth in a Dutch oven—or
other heavy-bottom pot large enough to comfortably hold all of
the ingredients—along with the bay leaf, celery, sage, and
thyme. Place the pot on a medium flame, bring it to a boil and
simmer until the broth is reduced to about 6 cups. This will take
about 20 minutes.
3. While the broth is reducing, melt the margarine in a cast iron
skillet, or other heavy-bottom skillet. Sauté the onions until
they turn a medium brown. Stir the onions frequently to prevent
them from burning. If the oil in the pan evaporates before the
onions are done, add a tablespoon of the simmering broth to the
pan.
4. Deglaze the skillet by adding a cup of simmering broth to the
browned onions. Simmer the onions until the pan is completely
deglazed and the broth has turned a light brown color. What we
have done here is create a flavor enhancer by subjecting the
onions to a controlled high heat. Food scientists call this a
Maillard reaction or browning reaction. The process creates a
rich flavor and color similar to the crust of fresh baked bread,
coffee beans, and the roasted malt used in dark beers and ales.
5. Add flavored onion mixture and the fresh carrots to the broth.
6. When the broth returns to a simmer, combine the cold chicken
broth with the flour and mix until there are no lumps. Slowly
stir this paste into the simmering broth. Continue stirring until
the mixture shows signs of thickening, which will only be slight.
Continue simmering until the carrots are tender. This is a good
time to make your dumplings if you didn't before you started
the stew.
7. Add your dumplings to the simmering broth mixture. Simmer the
dumplings until they are raised, and cooked through.
8. Gently stir in the chicken meat, thawed peas, salt, and
pepper. Simmer the stew until the chicken and peas are heated
through. Serve immediately.
Chicken, vegetable, and pasta medley
This is my newest chicken recipe. It has
been a regular item in my house for the past three months. The
recipe blends mild tasting chicken breast meat with the more
flavorful thigh meat and I enhance this mixture by marinating it
in a light Oriental style marinade. I use a preparation and
assembly method that resembles stir frying. I like it because it
helps maintain integrity of the different textures and flavors
present in the dish, particularly the flavor and texture of the
light and dark chicken meat. One of the real benefits of
industrialized chicken, though many will disagree, is its
extremely mild tasting flesh that will readily take on the flavor
of other ingredients without loosing its own. Chinese chefs are
masters at infusing chicken meat with the natural flavor of
various ingredients, then cooking the chicken quickly to prevent
the introduced flavors from masking that of the chicken. Many
contemporary Italian chefs have mastered this concept also. They
have developed chicken and pasta recipes that are easy to
prepare, low in fat, and taste as if they required a major effort
in the kitchen. This recipe is my own contribution to this great
concept.
The preparation for this dish resembles
that of many Chinese stir recipes. All of the ingredients are
prepared ahead of time and set aside in the order that they will
be incorporated into the recipe. I suggest you have a suitable
size pot of boiling salted water for the pasta on the stove
before you start cooking. Timing the cooking of the pasta with
the completion of the sauce is not difficult, but it is
absolutely essential. Immediately after the cooked pasta is
drained, it must be blended with the other ingredients. This is
the only way to maintain the taste, texture, nutritional
integrity, and visual presentation of the dish. The biggest
mistake that folks make with this type of recipe is to cook the
pasta then place it under cold running water to stop the cooking
process. When you do this, you wash away the surface starch and
this lowers the nutritional value of the pasta. You also reduce
the ability of the cooked pasta to absorb the flavor of the
sauce. It also creates an uncomplimentary texture in the finished
dish that no amount of culinary wizardry will totally eradicate.
Special Equipment:
1 14-inch cast iron skillet, 15-inch wok,
or other large heavy bottom skillet.
1 12- or 16-quart pot with a cover
Ingredients:
12 oz. boneless, skinless chicken breast
12 oz. boneless, skinless chicken thighs
Marinade:
2 tsp. light soy sauce
2 tsp. dry sherry, rice wine, or other dry white wine
1 tsp. sesame oil
1 tsp. five spice powder
¼ tsp. fresh ground black pepper
½ tsp. granulated sugar
Vegetables:
1 medium yellow onion, diced medium
1 medium red bell pepper cut into ½-inch wide by 2-inch long
strips
1 medium yellow bell pepper cut into ½-inch wide by 2-inch long
strips
4 oz. fresh mushrooms, sliced ¼-inch thick
2 cloves fresh garlic, minced
2 cups fresh chicken broth
¼ cup fresh chicken broth
3 Tbsp. all purpose flour
1 cup diced canned tomatoes
6 oz. frozen sugar snap peas, thawed
½ tsp. dried chilli pepper flakes (optional)
8 quarts cold water
1 Tbsp. Kosher salt
2 Tbsp. any light oil (to saute the chicken)
1 Tbsp. any light oil (to saute the vegetables)
Kosher salt to taste
fresh ground black pepper to taste
1 pound dried penne or other tubular pasta
Preparation:(About 20
minutes)
1. Cut the chicken into strips ½-inch wide
by approximately 2 inches long. Uniform length is not critical.
2. Combine all of the marinade ingredients in a bowl that is
large enough to hold the chicken comfortably. Add the chicken
strips and rub with the marinade, using your hands. Marinate the
chicken in the refrigerator for one hour.
3. While the chicken is marinating, prepare the onion, red and
yellow bell peppers, mushrooms, and garlic. Place each vegetable
in a separate bowl (that's four bowls) after being prepared
and set it aside.
4. Measure the two cups of chicken broth and set aside.
5. Combine the remaining ¼-cup of chicken broth with the flour
and set aside.
6. Combine the diced tomatoes with the thawed sugar snap peas and
set aside.
7. Measure the eight quarts of cold water into a suitable size
pot, cover the pot and place over a medium heat. When the water
comes to a boil add the salt and replace the lid.
Assembly:
1. In the skillet, heat the 2 Tbsp. of oil
over a medium high heat. Add the chicken strips, and cook until
the chicken is lightly browned. Reduce the heat to medium,
quickly remove the chicken from the pan and set it aside.
2. Remove the browned chicken bits from the bottom of the pan by
adding the 2 cups of chicken broth and scraping the bottom with a
wooden spoon as the mixture comes to a simmer.
3. While stirring constantly, add the ¼ cup of chicken broth,
mixed with the 3 Tbsp. of flour to the simmering chicken broth.
Cook the mixture for five minutes, adjusting the taste with the
Kosher salt and fresh ground black pepper. This will create a
rich light brown sauce, similar to the one in the previous
recipe. Remove the sauce from the pan, rinse and dry the pan,
then return it to the stove over a medium heat.
4. Heat the remaining one tablespoon of oil. Sauté the onions
until they just begin to brown. Add the minced garlic to the
onions and cook for one minute. Now add the bell pepper strips
and the mushrooms, and continue cooking until the peppers are
tender, but still firm.
5. Reduce the heat to low, and gently stir in the tomatoes, sugar
snap peas, and chicken. Cook the mixture for another minute or
until the chicken is heated to serving temperature. Turn off the
heat, but do not cover the pan.
6. Remove the lid from the pasta pot, adjust the heat to high to
bring the water to an active boil. While stirring constantly, to
prevent sticking, add the dried past to the rapidly boiling
water. Cook the pasta until it is just tender, and drain.
7. While the pasta is still hot, return it to the pot. Gently
stir in the chicken mixture. Serve immediately with plenty of
fresh grated Italian hard cheese.
The next time you go to the market for
chicken, remember that you are buying more than an inexpensive
and delicious meal. You are buying an important piece of history.
